Computers are smarter than humans.
Computers have brains.
Some computers have feelings.
Computers can solve any problems.
You need to know a lot of science and math to use a computer. If you decided that each statement is false, you are correct. Then what is a computer? What can it do? It is a machine that can handle large amounts of information and work with amazing speed. A computer is built to do these four jobs:
Computers are conformed to follow instructions from humans. They can solve only the problems that people tell them to solve. Since people cannot solve every problem, neither can computers. To tell a computer what to do, you have to know what problem you want to solve and have a plan for solving it.
Since computers can't do anything without instructions from a human, what makes them so special? They can do some things better than humans. Computers calculate faster than humans. They are more accurate than humans. Computer can also store vast amounts of information, and they do not "forget" what they store. These kinds of qualities make computer wonderful tools to help people solve complex problems.
Computers have become important and valuable tools in today's world. Since they affect so many parts of our lives, it is important to be aware of how they are used and how they work.
In the beginning ... A generation refers to the state of improvement in the development of a product. This term is also used in the different advancements of computer technology. With each new generation, the circuitry has gotten smaller and more advanced than the previous generation before it. As a result of the miniaturization, speed, power, and memory of computers has proportionally increased. New discoveries are constantly being developed that affect the way we live, work and play.
The First Generation: 1946-1958 (The Vacuum Tube Years) The first generation computers were huge, slow, expensive, and often undependable. In 1946two Americans, Presper Eckert, and John Mauchly built the ENIAC electronic computer which used vacuum tubes instead of the mechanical switches of the Mark I. The ENIAC used thousands of vacuum tubes, which took up a lot of space and gave off a great deal of heat just like light bulbs do. The ENIAC led to other vacuum tube type computers like the EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) and the UNIVAC I (UNIVersal Automatic Computer).
The vacuum tube was an extremely important step in the advancement of computers. Vacuum tubes were invented the same time the light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison and worked very similar to light bulbs. It's purpose was to act like an amplifier and a switch. Without any moving parts, vacuum tubes could take very weak signals and make the signal stronger (amplify it). Vacuum tubes could also stop and start the flow of electricity instantly (switch). These two properties made the ENIAC computer possible.
The ENIAC gave off so much heat that they had to be cooled by gigantic air conditioners. However even with these huge coolers, vacuum tubes still overheated regularly. It was time for something new. The Second Generation: 1959-1964 (The Era of the Transistor) The transistor computer did not last as long as the vacuum tube computer lasted, but it was no less important in the advancement of computer technology. In 1947 three scientists, John Bardeen, William Shockley, and Walter Brattain working at AT&T's Bell Labs invented what would replace the vacuum tube forever. This invention was the transistor which functions like a vacuum tube in that it can be used to relay and switch electronic signals.
There were obvious differences between the transisitor and the vacuum tube. The transistor was faster, more reliable, smaller, and much cheaper to build than a vacuum tube. One transistor replaced the equivalent of 40 vacuum tubes. These transistors were made of solid material, some of which is silicon, an abundant element (second only to oxygen) found in beach sand and glass. Therefore they were very cheap to produce. Transistors were found to conduct electricity faster and better than vacuum tubes. They were also much smaller and gave off virtually no heat compared to vacuum tubes. Their use marked a new beginning for the computer. Without this invention, space travel in the 1960's would not have been possible. However, a new invention would even further advance our ability to use computers. The Third Generation: 1965-1970 (Integrated Circuits - Miniaturizing the Computer) Transistors were a tremendous breakthrough in advancing the computer. However no one could predict that thousands even now millions of transistors (circuits) could be compacted in such a small space. The integrated circuit, or as it is sometimes referred to as semiconductor chip, packs a huge number of transistors onto a single wafer of silicon. Robert Noyce of Fairchild Corporation and Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments independently discovered the amazing attributes of integrated circuits. Placing such large numbers of transistors on a single chip vastly increased the power of a single computer and lowered its cost considerably.
Since the invention of integrated circuits, the number of transistors that can be placed on a single chip has doubled every two years, shrinking both the size and cost of computers even further and further enhancing its power. Most electronic devices today use some form of integrated circuits placed on printed circuit boards-- thin pieces of bakelite or fiberglass that have electrical connections etched onto them -- sometimes called a mother board. These third generation computers could carry out instructions in billionths of a second. The size of these machines dropped to the size of small file cabinets. Yet, the single biggest advancement in the computer era was yet to be discovered. The Fourth Generation: 1971-Today (The Microprocessor) This generation can be characterized by both the jump to monolithic integrated circuits(millions of transistors put onto one integrated circuit chip) and the invention of the microprocessor (a single chip that could do all the processing of a full-scale computer). By putting millions of transistors onto one single chip more calculation and faster speeds could be reached by computers. Because electricity travels about a foot in a billionth of a second, the smaller the distance the greater the speed of computers.
However what really triggered the tremendous growth of computers and its significant impact on our lives is the invention of the microprocessor. Ted Hoff, employed by Intel (Robert Noyce's new company) invented a chip the size of a pencil eraser that could do all the computing and logic work of a computer. The microprocessor was made to be used in calculators, not computers. It led, however, to the invention of personal computers, or microcomputers.
It wasn't until the 1970's that people began buying computer for personal use. One of the earliest personal computers was the Altair 8800 computer kit. In 1975 you could purchase this kit and put it together to make your own personal computer. In 1977 the Apple II was sold to the public and in 1981 IBM entered the PC (personal computer) market.
Today we have all heard of Intel and its Pentium® Processors and now we know how it all got started. The computers of the next generation will have millions upon millions of transistors on one chip and will perform over a billion calculations in a single second. There is no end in sight for the computer movement.
Questions
Directions: Answer each of the questions after reading the article above. Write in complete sentences. You must think and be creative with your answers.
In each of the 4 generations what was the cause for the increase of speed, power, or memory?
Why did the ENIAC and other computers like it give off so much heat? (Be very specific)
What characteristics made the transistors better than the vacuum tube?
How was space travel made possible through the invention of transistors?
What did the microprocessor allow the computers to do? and What was the microprocessor's original purpose?
When was the first computer offered to the public and what was its name?
What was Robert Noyce and Jack Kilby known for?
Intel was started by who?
What is monolithic integrated circuits?
How do you think society will be different if scientists are able to create a chip that will perform a trillion operations in a single second?
RAM" redirects here. For other uses of the word, see Ram. Example of writable volatile random access memory: Synchronous Dynamic RAM modules, primarily used as main memory in personal computers, workstations, and servers.Computer memory types Volatile DRAM, e.g. DDR SDRAM SRAM Upcoming Z-RAM TTRAM Historical Delay line memory Selectron tube Williams tube Non-volatile ROM PROM EPROM EEPROM Flash memory Upcoming FeRAM MRAM CBRAM PRAM SONOS RRAM Racetrack memory NRAM Millipede Historical Drum memory Magnetic core memory Plated wire memory Bubble memory Twistor memory Random-access memory (usually known by its acronym, RAM) is a form of computer data storage. Today, it takes the form of integrated circuits that allow stored data to be accessed in any order (i.e., at random). The word random thus refers to the fact that any piece of data can be returned in a constant time, regardless of its physical location and whether or not it is related to the previous piece of data.[1]
By contrast, storage devices such as tapes, magnetic discs and optical discs rely on the physical movement of the recording medium or a reading head. In these devices, the movement takes longer than data transfer, and the retrieval time varies based on the physical location of the next item.
The word RAM is often associated with volatile types of memory (such as DRAM memory modules), where the information is lost after the power is switched off. Many other types of memory are RAM, too, including most types of ROM and flash memory called NOR-Flash.HistoryAn early type of widespread writable random access memory was the magnetic core memory, developed from 1949 to 1952, and subsequently used in most computers up until the development of the static and dynamic integrated RAM circuits in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Before this, computers used relays, delay line memory or various kinds of vacuum tube arrangements to implement "main" memory functions (i.e., hundreds or thousands of bits), some of which were random access, some not. Latches built out of vacuum tube triodes, and later, out of discrete transistors, were used for smaller and faster memories such as registers and (random access) register banks. Prior to the development of integrated ROM circuits, permanent (or read-only) random access memory was often constructed using semiconductor diode matrices driven by address decoders.
Overview
Types of RAM Top L-R, DDR2 with heat-spreader, DDR2 without heat-spreader, Laptop DDR2, DDR, Laptop DDR 1 Megabit chip - one of the last models developed by VEB Carl Zeiss Jena in 1989Modern types of writable RAM generally store a bit of data in either the state of a flip-flop, as in SRAM (static RAM), or as a charge in a capacitor (or transistor gate), as in DRAM (dynamic RAM), EPROM, EEPROM and Flash. Some types have circuitry to detect and/or correct random faults called memory errors in the stored data, using parity bits or error correction codes. RAM of the read-only type, ROM, instead uses a metal mask to permanently enable/disable selected transistors, instead of storing a charge in them.
As both SRAM and DRAM are volatile, other forms of computer storage, such as disks and magnetic tapes, have been used as persistent storage in traditional computers. Many newer products instead rely on flash memory to maintain data when not in use, such as PDAs or small music players. Certain personal computers, such as many rugged computers and netbooks, have also replaced magnetic disks with flash drives. With flash memory, only the NOR type is capable of true random access, allowing direct code execution, and is therefore often used instead of ROM; the lower cost NAND type is commonly used for bulk storage in memory cards and solid-state drives.
Similar to a microprocessor, a memory chip is an integrated circuit (IC) made of millions of transistors and capacitors. In the most common form of computer memory, dynamic random access memory (DRAM), a transistor and a capacitor are paired to create a memory cell, which represents a single bit of data. The capacitor holds the bit of information—a 0 or a 1 . The transistor acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry on the memory chip read the capacitor or change its state.
Memory hierarchyMany computer systems have a memory hierarchy consisting of CPU registers, on-die SRAM caches, external caches, DRAM, paging systems, and virtual memory or swap space on a hard drive. This entire pool of memory may be referred to as "RAM" by many developers, even though the various subsystems can have very different access times, violating the original concept behind the random access term in RAM. Even within a hierarchy level such as DRAM, the specific row, column, bank, rank, channel, or interleave organization of the components make the access time variable, although not to the extent that rotating storage media or a tape is variable. The overall goal of using a memory hierarchy is to obtain the higher possible average access performance while minimizing the total cost of entire memory system. (Generally, the memory hierarchy follows the access time with the fast CPU registers at the top and the slow hard drive at the bottom.)
In many modern personal computers, the RAM comes in an easily upgraded form of modules called memory modules or DRAM modules about the size of a few sticks of chewing gum. These can quickly be replaced should they become damaged or too small for current purposes. As suggested above, smaller amounts of RAM (mostly SRAM) are also integrated in the CPU and other ICs on the motherboard, as well as in hard-drives, CD-ROMs, and several other parts of the computer system.
SwappingIf a computer becomes low on RAM during intensive application cycles, many CPU architectures and operating systems are able to perform an operation known as "swapping". Swapping uses a paging file, an area on a hard drive temporarily used as additional working memory. Constant use of this mechanism is called thrashing and is generally undesirable because it lowers overall system performance, mainly because hard drives are slower than RAM.
On some operating systems (such as Linux) it is possible to turn swapping off such that no memory is written to the hard disk ("swapoff -a" as superuser on startup). This can reduce latency as well as hard disk wear, but if one does not have enough RAM then the OS will freeze and perhaps kernel panic.[citation needed]
Other uses of the "RAM" termOther physical devices with read–write capability can have "RAM" in their names: for example, DVD-RAM. "Random access" is also the name of an indexing method: hence, disk storage is often called "random access"( Wiki:PowerOfPlainText, Fortran language features#Direct-access files, MBASIC#Files and input/output, Java Platform, Standard Edition#Random access, indexed file ) because the reading head can move relatively quickly from one piece of data to another, and does not have to read all the data in between. However the final "M" is crucial: "RAM" (provided there is no additional term as in "DVD-RAM") always refers to a solid-state device.
RAM disksSoftware can "partition" a portion of a computer's RAM, allowing it to act as a much faster hard drive that is called a RAM disk. Unless the memory used is non-volatile, a RAM disk loses the stored data when the computer is shut down. However, volatile memory can retain its data when the computer is shut down if it has a separate power source, usually a battery.
Shadow RAMSometimes, the contents of a ROM chip are copied to SRAM or DRAM to allow for shorter access times (as ROM may be slower). The ROM chip is then disabled while the initialized memory locations are switched in on the same block of addresses (often write-protected). This process, sometimes called shadowing, is fairly common in both computers and embedded systems.
As a common example, the BIOS in typical personal computers often has an option called “use shadow BIOS” or similar. When enabled, functions relying on data from the BIOS’s ROM will instead use DRAM locations (most can also toggle shadowing of video card ROM or other ROM sections). Depending on the system, this may or may not result in increased performance. On some systems the benefit may be hypothetical because the BIOS is not used after booting in favor of direct hardware access. Of course, somewhat less free memory is available when shadowing is enabled.[2]
Recent developmentsSeveral new types of non-volatile RAM, which will preserve data while powered down, are under development. The technologies used include ryan carbon nanotubes and approaches utilizing the magnetic tunnel effect. Amongst the 1st generation MRAM, a 128 KiB (128 × 210 bytes) magnetic RAM (MRAM) chip was manufactured with 0.18 µm technology in the summer of 2003. In June 2004, Infineon Technologies unveiled a 16 MiB (16 × 220 bytes) prototype again based on 0.18 µm technology. There are two 2nd generation techniques currently in development: Thermal Assisted Switching (TAS)[3] which is being developed by Crocus Technology, and Spin Torque Transfer (STT) on which Crocus, Hynix, IBM, and several other companies are working[4]. Nantero built a functioning carbon nanotube memory prototype 10 GiB (10 × 230 bytes) array in 2004. Whether some of these technologies will be able to eventually take a significant market share from either DRAM, SRAM, or flash-memory technology, however, remains to be seen.
Since 2006, "Solid-state drives" (based on flash memory) with capacities exceeding 64 gigabytes and performance far exceeding traditional disks have become available. This development has started to blur the definition between traditional random access memory and "disks", dramatically reducing the difference in performance. Also in development is research being done in the field of plastic magnets, which switch magnetic polarities based on light.[citation needed]
Some kinds of random-access memory, such as "EcoRAM", are specifically designed for server farms, where low power consumption is more important than speed. [5]
Memory wallThe "memory wall" is the growing disparity of speed between CPU and memory outside the CPU chip. An important reason for this disparity is the limited communication bandwidth beyond chip boundaries. From 1986 to 2000, CPU speed improved at an annual rate of 55% while memory speed only improved at 10%. Given these trends, it was expected that memory latency would become an overwhelming bottleneck in computer performance. [6]
Currently, CPU speed improvements have slowed significantly partly due to major physical barriers and partly because current CPU designs have already hit the memory wall in some sense. Intel summarized these causes in their Platform 2015 documentation (PDF)
“First of all, as chip geometries shrink and clock frequencies rise, the transistor leakage current increases, leading to excess power consumption and heat (more on power consumption below). Secondly, the advantages of higher clock speeds are in part negated by memory latency, since memory access times have not been able to keep pace with increasing clock frequencies. Third, for certain applications, traditional serial architectures are becoming less efficient as processors get faster (due to the so-called Von Neumann bottleneck), further undercutting any gains that frequency increases might otherwise buy. In addition, partly due to limitations in the means of producing inductance within solid state devices, resistance-capacitance (RC) delays in signal transmission are growing as feature sizes shrink, imposing an additional bottleneck that frequency increases don't address.”
The RC delays in signal transmission were also noted in Clock Rate versus IPC: The End of the Road for Conventional Microarchitectures which projects a maximum of 12.5% average annual CPU performance improvement between 2000 and 2014. The data on Intel Processors clearly shows a slowdown in performance improvements in recent processors. However, Intel's new processors, Core 2 Duo (codenamed Conroe) show a significant improvement over previous Pentium 4 processors; due to a more efficient architecture, performance increased while clock rate actually decreased.
Upgrading your computer RAM is one or the most cost-effective ways of giving a huge boost to your computer's performance. Upgrading your RAM can be done in two ways. First, you can replace your old memory stick with one that has a larger capacity. Second, you can use the extra RAM slots on your motherboard to add new memory sticks.
Before you can upgrade your RAM, however, you need to know the type of RAM that your computer uses. There are three types of RAM on the market today. The oldest type is the DDR SDRAM or double data rate synchronous dynamic RAM. The DDR SDRAM has largely been phased out by the more common DDR2 SDRAM or double data rate, second generation SDRAM. The latest type of RAM is the third generation DDR3 SDRAM. DDR3 SDRAM has faster data transfer speeds than DDR2 SDRAM and DDR SDRAM, with DDR SDRAM being the slowest.
Some motherboards can only support one type of RAM. Thus, always do your research before you go ahead and buy new RAM modules. Certain RAM architecture is also constrained to a motherboard. To make sure that you have the correct RAM, you can remove your RAM stick and present it to the store when making a purchase.
Make sure your computer is turned off and unplugged from the wall socket when you remove your RAM module. This will minimize electrical shocks for both you and your internal computer components. In addition, do not turn on your computer without at least one RAM module attached to the motherboard. Your computer will not boot without any RAM.
For more information about how to upgrade your RAM, check your computer manual. It should contain plenty of advice on how you should go about removing and adding new RAM modules to your computer.
RAM (Random Access Memory) is a form of computer storage for data. The computer’s performance and speed depend on the size of RAM installed. Adding more RAM on the system is one of the best ways to upgrade the performance on a cost-effective manner.Materials Needed:
- Memory (RAM)- screwdriver- motherboard user’s manual- Internet connection
Step 1
Determine what RAM will be compatible to the computer’s motherboard. Check if the system has enough slots to hold it. The new RAM that will be installed should match the specifications of the existing RAM.
Step 2
Shut down the computer and unplug it from the power source. Wait for 10 seconds before opening the casing in order for the motherboard’s capacitors to discharge. Disconnect all peripherals attached to the computer. Once the plugs are removed, remove the casing.
Step 3
To prevent computer RAM and other peripherals from static electricity, remember to touch the Power Supply Unit (PSU) to remove your static electricity or use an anti-static wrist strap.
Step 4
Look for the memory slot in the motherboard. Place the memory or RAM copper stripes first (the bottom end of the RAM). Align it to the memory slot and push downwards. Apply equal amount of force when pressing down. Make sure that the RAM snaps in the slot and gently pull it out to ensure its connection to the memory slot.
Step 5
Reconnect the monitor cable, keyboard, mouse, and power cable in your computer and leave the computer cover off.
Step 6
Turn on the computer and go to BIOS menu. Check the RAM by using Basic input /output system “BIOS” if the installed properly and connected. To access the system’s BIOS (Basic Input / Output System). This can be done by pressing F2, F8, or the Delete key (Depending on the Motherboard Manufacturer) before the Operating System (OS) starts to load. The BIOS function is to detect, test, and initialize system device like RAM, hard drive, floppy drive, and integrated video/sound/network interface card.
Step 7
If you turn on your computer and nothing happened, immediately turn off your computer. Unplug the computer’s power cable and check the RAM if it is firmly connected to the memory slot. The memory slot clips on both sides must be all the way up. Make sure that the RAM placed is in the lowest numbered slot or in the slot closest to you current RAM.
Step 8
Boot up the computer. If the computer boots normally and the amount of RAM is loaded in its exact capacity, place the computer cover and secure it with screws.
RAM (Random Access Memory) is a form of computer storage for data. The computer’s performance and speed depend on the size of RAM installed. Adding more RAM on the system is one of the best ways to upgrade the performance on a cost-effective manner.Materials Needed:
- Memory (RAM)- screwdriver- motherboard user’s manual- Internet connection
Step 1
Determine what RAM will be compatible to the computer’s motherboard. Check if the system has enough slots to hold it. The new RAM that will be installed should match the specifications of the existing RAM.
Step 2
Shut down the computer and unplug it from the power source. Wait for 10 seconds before opening the casing in order for the motherboard’s capacitors to discharge. Disconnect all peripherals attached to the computer. Once the plugs are removed, remove the casing.
Step 3
To prevent computer RAM and other peripherals from static electricity, remember to touch the Power Supply Unit (PSU) to remove your static electricity or use an anti-static wrist strap.
Step 4
Look for the memory slot in the motherboard. Place the memory or RAM copper stripes first (the bottom end of the RAM). Align it to the memory slot and push downwards. Apply equal amount of force when pressing down. Make sure that the RAM snaps in the slot and gently pull it out to ensure its connection to the memory slot.
Step 5
Reconnect the monitor cable, keyboard, mouse, and power cable in your computer and leave the computer cover off.
Step 6
Turn on the computer and go to BIOS menu. Check the RAM by using Basic input /output system “BIOS” if the installed properly and connected. To access the system’s BIOS (Basic Input / Output System). This can be done by pressing F2, F8, or the Delete key (Depending on the Motherboard Manufacturer) before the Operating System (OS) starts to load. The BIOS function is to detect, test, and initialize system device like RAM, hard drive, floppy drive, and integrated video/sound/network interface card.
Step 7
If you turn on your computer and nothing happened, immediately turn off your computer. Unplug the computer’s power cable and check the RAM if it is firmly connected to the memory slot. The memory slot clips on both sides must be all the way up. Make sure that the RAM placed is in the lowest numbered slot or in the slot closest to you current RAM.
Step 8
Boot up the computer. If the computer boots normally and the amount of RAM is loaded in its exact capacity, place the computer cover and secure it with screws.
In the beginning ... A generation refers to the state of improvement in the development of a product. This term is also used in the different advancements of computer technology. With each new generation, the circuitry has gotten smaller and more advanced than the previous generation before it. As a result of the miniaturization, speed, power, and memory of computers has proportionally increased. New discoveries are constantly being developed that affect the way we live, work and play. The First Generation: 1946-1958 (The Vacuum Tube Years) The first generation computers were huge, slow, expensive, and often undependable. In 1946two Americans, Presper Eckert, and John Mauchly built the ENIAC electronic computer which used vacuum tubes instead of the mechanical switches of the Mark I. The ENIAC used thousands of vacuum tubes, which took up a lot of space and gave off a great deal of heat just like light bulbs do. The ENIAC led to other vacuum tube type computers like the EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) and the UNIVAC I (UNIVersal Automatic Computer).
The vacuum tube was an extremely important step in the advancement of computers. Vacuum tubes were invented the same time the light bulb was invented by Thomas Edison and worked very similar to light bulbs. It's purpose was to act like an amplifier and a switch. Without any moving parts, vacuum tubes could take very weak signals and make the signal stronger (amplify it). Vacuum tubes could also stop and start the flow of electricity instantly (switch). These two properties made the ENIAC computer possible.
The ENIAC gave off so much heat that they had to be cooled by gigantic air conditioners. However even with these huge coolers, vacuum tubes still overheated regularly. It was time for something new. The Second Generation: 1959-1964 (The Era of the Transistor) The transistor computer did not last as long as the vacuum tube computer lasted, but it was no less important in the advancement of computer technology. In 1947 three scientists, John Bardeen, William Shockley, and Walter Brattain working at AT&T's Bell Labs invented what would replace the vacuum tube forever. This invention was the transistor which functions like a vacuum tube in that it can be used to relay and switch electronic signals.
There were obvious differences between the transisitor and the vacuum tube. The transistor was faster, more reliable, smaller, and much cheaper to build than a vacuum tube. One transistor replaced the equivalent of 40 vacuum tubes. These transistors were made of solid material, some of which is silicon, an abundant element (second only to oxygen) found in beach sand and glass. Therefore they were very cheap to produce. Transistors were found to conduct electricity faster and better than vacuum tubes. They were also much smaller and gave off virtually no heat compared to vacuum tubes. Their use marked a new beginning for the computer. Without this invention, space travel in the 1960's would not have been possible. However, a new invention would even further advance our ability to use computers. The Third Generation: 1965-1970 (Integrated Circuits - Miniaturizing the Computer) Transistors were a tremendous breakthrough in advancing the computer. However no one could predict that thousands even now millions of transistors (circuits) could be compacted in such a small space. The integrated circuit, or as it is sometimes referred to as semiconductor chip, packs a huge number of transistors onto a single wafer of silicon. Robert Noyce of Fairchild Corporation and Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments independently discovered the amazing attributes of integrated circuits. Placing such large numbers of transistors on a single chip vastly increased the power of a single computer and lowered its cost considerably.
Since the invention of integrated circuits, the number of transistors that can be placed on a single chip has doubled every two years, shrinking both the size and cost of computers even further and further enhancing its power. Most electronic devices today use some form of integrated circuits placed on printed circuit boards-- thin pieces of bakelite or fiberglass that have electrical connections etched onto them -- sometimes called a mother board. These third generation computers could carry out instructions in billionths of a second. The size of these machines dropped to the size of small file cabinets. Yet, the single biggest advancement in the computer era was yet to be discovered. The Fourth Generation: 1971-Today (The Microprocessor) This generation can be characterized by both the jump to monolithic integrated circuits(millions of transistors put onto one integrated circuit chip) and the invention of the microprocessor (a single chip that could do all the processing of a full-scale computer). By putting millions of transistors onto one single chip more calculation and faster speeds could be reached by computers. Because electricity travels about a foot in a billionth of a second, the smaller the distance the greater the speed of computers.
However what really triggered the tremendous growth of computers and its significant impact on our lives is the invention of the microprocessor. Ted Hoff, employed by Intel (Robert Noyce's new company) invented a chip the size of a pencil eraser that could do all the computing and logic work of a computer. The microprocessor was made to be used in calculators, not computers. It led, however, to the invention of personal computers, or microcomputers.
It wasn't until the 1970's that people began buying computer for personal use. One of the earliest personal computers was the Altair 8800 computer kit. In 1975 you could purchase this kit and put it together to make your own personal computer. In 1977 the Apple II was sold to the public and in 1981 IBM entered the PC (personal computer) market.
Today we have all heard of Intel and its Pentium® Processors and now we know how it all got started. The computers of the next generation will have millions upon millions of transistors on one chip and will perform over a billion calculations in a single second. There is no end in sight for the computer movement.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
QuestionsDirections: Answer each of the questions after reading the article above. Write in complete sentences. You must think and be creative with your answers.
In each of the 4 generations what was the cause for the increase of speed, power, or memory? Why did the ENIAC and other computers like it give off so much heat? (Be very specific) What characteristics made the transistors better than the vacuum tube? How was space travel made possible through the invention of transistors? What did the microprocessor allow the computers to do? and What was the microprocessor's original purpose? When was the first computer offered to the public and what was its name? What was Robert Noyce and Jack Kilby known for? Intel was started by who? What is monolithic integrated circuits? How do you think society will be different if scientists are able to create a chip that will perform a trillion operations in a single second?
Why is it important to know how a computer works? Easy, if you don't, it will be hard to control. Computers were never built to control us even though that is how it appears. Their creation was just another tool God gave man to use to benefit society. What can you do to learn more about computers? I have an easy answer. Just read, and use computers more. They are not that hard and with time you too can become the master over this tool.
Computers, the ones we know and love have not been around all that long. The first home personal computer was not sold until 1977. We have come a long way since then. Did you know that in 1983 there were approximately 2 million personal computers in use in the United States. However just 10 years later in 1993 the number had jumped to more than 90 million.
Computers, today are small, fast, reliable, and extremely useful. Back in 1977 that really was not the case. However, they both operated in basically the same way. They both receive data, stored data, processed data, and then output data similar the the way our own brain functions. This article deals with those 4 functions: Memory, Processing, Input, and Output.
MemoryLets look at computer memory first. The function of storage in a computer comes in many different sizes, types and shapes. However there are two basic categories: short-term and long-term. A typical computer contains numerous types of memory including RAM, ROM, virtual, cache, and various long-term storage devices. Each type of computer memory serves a specific function and purpose.
Computer memory is measured in bytes. A single byte is made up of a series of 1's and 0's normally traveling in pairs of eight. These eight 0's and 1's are the way the computer communicates and stores information. With each keystroke or character a byte of memory is used. In another article you will learn more about bits and how the computer thinks.
Measuring Memory
Term/Byte
Abbreviation
Value
Kilo
K, KB
1,024 bytes
Mega
M, MB, Meg
1,048,576 bytes (Million)
Giga
G, GB, Giga
1,073,741,824 bytes (Billion)
Tera
T, TB, Tera
1,099,511,628,000 bytes (Trillion)
Here is another way of looking at the measurement of memory:
Measuring Bytes
8 bits
=
1 byte
1000 bytes
=
1 kilobyte
1000 kilobytes
=
1 megabyte
1000 megabytes
=
1 gigabyte
1000 gigabytes
=
1 terabyte
ROM ROM, or read-only memory is permanent, long-term, nonvolatile memory. Nonvolatile means is doesn't disappear when the computer is shut off. It also can not be erased or changed in anyway. However there are types of ROM called PROM that can be altered. The P stands for programmable. ROM's purpose is to store the basic input/output system (BIOS) that controls the start-up, or boot process.
RAM RAM, or random-access memory unlike ROM works only when the computer is turned on. This memory is vital to the computer because it controls the moment by moment processes of the computer. The first thing that goes into RAM is the OS (operating system) which is most cases is Windows 95. Next for the RAM might be a game, or the Internet browser, or some type of software that you want to use.
Early personal computer only needed about 64K of RAM. Today that number is drastically higher. With photos, sounds, and even movies going into RAM, the amount need is now in the millions. The computer I am currently using has 80 MB or 80,000K of RAM.
Multitasking has put more demand on RAM in the past few years. Multitasking is the ability to run more than one program at the same time. For instance, many people like to run Netscape Communicator along with their word processing software. This means you need lots of RAM to hold both programs.
Other types of temporary memory are cache (pronounced "cash") and virtual memory. Both of these types of memory supplement the computer's primary RAM and perform the same function as RAM.
Storage Devices:
RAM and ROM may be very important parts of the computer; however, without storage devices like hard drives and disk drives your computer would not be near as useful.
Here are the most common forms of Storage Devices found on your home computer:
Floppy disk or Floppy
Hard disk (drive) or HD
A round plastic surface that is coated with magnetic film. They come in 31/2 size. They hold about 720k to 1440K of information. They are typically are used to install new software, save, share, and/or copy files. Floppy drives are given letters. Commonly the floppy is A, a 2nd floppy is B and the hard drive is C.
A stack of round metal platters called disks encased in a metal air tight shell. They commonly range in sizes from 1 to 10 gigabytes (1000MB=1GB). The hard drive's function is to store all the files, and software the computer will ever use. Any file or software program used by RAM most likely will come from the disk drive.
CD-ROM (Compact disk, read-only memory)
DVD-ROM (digital video disk, read-only memory)
CD's function much like hard drive in that they store large amounts of memory. What separates them is their mobility and optical storage technology. Their storage capacity is also very limited compared to hard drives. The can only hold up to approximately 650 MB of information. The other big difference is that you have to have a special drive to write to CD's. Otherwise they can only be read from.
DVD's are similar to CD in that they are written and read by laser. Hard drives use magnetic currents store data. However CD's and DVD's use light (laser) to write and read data on a disk. These long and short pits are then stored or etched on the surface of the disk. They can only be read by laser technology. The new DVD technology increased the amount of memory a regular CD can hold. DVD's can range in sizes from 4.34GB (1000MB=1GB) to 7.95GB.
ProcessingIf someone had to find the brains of the computer they would most certainly say its the microprocessor. The microprocessor is often referred to as the CPU (Central processing unit). The microprocessor is a chip the size of a postage stamp. The processor is the one part of the computer that is most important to the computer. The microprocessor controls how data is sorted and directs the flow of data.
To a great extent a computer is defined by the power of its microprocessor. Chips with higher processing speed and more recent design offer the greatest performance and access to new technologies. Most microprocessors made for PCs are made by Intel or by companies that clone Intel chips, such as Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) and Cyrix.
The early Intel chip came in models called 286, 386, and 486. The 586 chip was given the name Pentium. The series of Pentiums were given the following names: Pentium Pro, Pentium with MMX, and Pentium II. The newer processors hold more transistors and thus more computing power on a single chip.
Microprocessor
Processor
No. of Transistors
Bus Width
80286
134,000
16 bit
80386
275,000
32 bit
80486
1,600,000
32 bit
Pentium
3,300,000
64 bit external/
32 bit internal
Pentium Pro
5,500,000
64 bit
Pentium w/ MMX
4,500,000
64 bit external/
32 bit internal
Pentium II
7,500,000
64 bit
InputOne of the best features of a computer is the ability to give the computer commands and feed it information. Without an input device this would not be possible. Input devices can be built into the computer, like the keyboard in a laptop, or it can be connected to the computer by a cable. The most common input device is the keyboard. There are lots of others such as: mice, trackballs, touch pads, touch screens, pens, joy sticks, scanners, bar code readers, video and digital cameras, and microphones. In addition, storage devices such as disk drives can serve as input devices.
OutputInput is important but equally important is the ability to read what the computer is doing. The computer output devices are used to serve the user. The most common output device is the monitor, or screen. However most computer come with speakers and a printer which are excellent output devices. Storage devices such as disk drives and diskettes also serve as output devices when it is necessary to write new or updated data files to disk or tape.
One might think of a computer virus as a tiny computer program designed to perform mischief. Most computer users have heard about computer viruses. A computer virus is the result of a destructive program that someone has written and placed inside a computer program, which unsuspecting people then place in their computer system.
Some viruses can erase all the information from the place where it's stored on the computer's hard disk. But each virus is different. Some display strange messages on your computer screen; others make small changes in your computer programs.
Where do these viruses come from? They certainly don't float around in the air like some human viruses. Instead, like any other computer program, a human must create them.
Why do people create them? It's hard to say. Some people create these programs out of meanness to get even. While others create them just as a challenge. Why do you thing people create these very destructive programs? How does your computer get a virus? Almost exactly the way humans do. The computer gets exposed to one. Well, its not quiet that easy.
Many people get contaminated computer programs by trading programs with other people. Others get contaminated computer programs through the use of modems, which allow computers to communicate over telephone lines (ie. The Internet)
Most of the time, programs that arrive by modem or a trade are perfectly safe to use. However, you do stand a chance of getting a program that has been tampered with. Here a computer program virus is hiding inside the normal program. Many computer programs that are traded were copied illegally.
When this program enters your computer through your input device, it hides in your computer's memory and starts to duplicate itself like a disease. When you save your data, you also save the virus. Slowly but surely, the virus crowds out your data and causes major system problems.
The virus can't affect the computer's ROM (Read Only Memory), but it can affect RAM (Random Access Memory) and your computer disks. When your shut off your computer a virus that has been picked up will be lost, just like any other memory that is held in RAM.
If the virus is on your disk or hard drive, it will return to the computer when you use the program again. If you switch from one program to another without shutting down the machine, the virus will attach itself to the new program. In this way, it can slowly infect all your programs before you know that it exists. Today millions of dollars are being spent to rid and protect computer systems from these virus programs.
Commercial and shareware programs have been created with the sole purpose of detecting and fixing suspect programs that might be viruses infected. These detection programs should be ran when any disk is put into your disk drive or every time your computer is first started up each day to scan the computer's hard drive.
http://computer.howstuffworks.com/ram.htm
